Effects of Air Pollution on Animals Drawing

Harmful substances in the atmosphere

"Bad air quality" and "Air quality" redirect here. For the obsolete medical theory, see Miasma theory. For the measure of how polluted the air is, see Air quality index. For the properties of air, see Qualities of air.

2016 air quality indicator – light colors have lower air quality and thus higher air pollution.

Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. There are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases (including ammonia, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane, carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons), particulates (both organic and inorganic), and biological molecules. Air pollution can cause diseases, allergies, and even death to humans; it can also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural environment (for example, climate change, ozone depletion or habitat degradation) or built environment (for example, acid rain). Both human activity and natural processes can generate air pollution.

Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases, including respiratory infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer.^[1] Growing evidence suggests that air pollution exposure may be associated with reduced IQ scores, impaired cognition,^[2] increased risk for psychiatric disorders such as depression^[3] and detrimental perinatal health.^[4] The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.^[5] Outdoor air pollution alone causes 2.1^{[6] [7]} to 4.21 million deaths annually, making it one of the top contributors to human death.^{[1] [8]} Overall, air pollution causes the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide each year, and is the world's largest single environmental health risk.^{[1] [9] [10]} Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.^[11] The scope of the air pollution crisis is enormous: 90% of the world's population breathes dirty air to some degree. Although the health consequences are extensive, the way the problem is handled is often haphazard.^{[12] [13] [14]}

Productivity losses and degraded quality of life caused by air pollution are estimated to cost the world economy $5 trillion per year^{[15] [16] [17]} but, along with health and mortality impacts, are an externality to the contemporary economic system and most human activity, albeit sometimes being moderately regulated and monitored.^{[18] [19]} Various pollution control technologies and strategies are available to reduce air pollution.^{[20] [21]} To reduce the impacts of air pollution, both international and national legislation and regulation have been implemented to regulate air pollution. Local laws, where well enforced, have led to strong public health improvements. At the international level, some of these efforts have been successful – for example the Montreal Protocol was successful at reducing release of harmful ozone depleting chemicals or the 1985 Helsinki Protocol which reduced sulfur emissions, while other attempts have so far been less successful in implementation, such as international action on climate change.

Sources of air pollution [edit]

Anthropogenic (human-made) sources [edit]

Smoking of fish over an open fire in Ghana, 2018

These are mostly related to the burning of fuel.

• Stationary sources include:
  • smoke stacks of fossil fuel power stations (see for example environmental impact of the coal industry)
  • manufacturing facilities (factories)^{[ additional citation(s) needed ]}
    • a 2014 study found that in China equipment-, machinery-, and devices-manufacturing and construction sectors contributed more than 50% of air pollutant emissions^[22]
  • waste incineration (incinerators as well as open and uncontrolled fires of mismanaged waste, making up about a fourth of municipal solid terrestrial waste)^{[23] [24]}
  • furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices
  • In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and dung.^{[25] [26]}
• Mobile sources include motor vehicles, trains (particularly diesel locomotives and DMUs), marine vessels and aircraft.
• Controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.

There are also sources from processes other than combustion:

• Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents. These can be substantial; emissions from these sources was estimated to account for almost half of pollution from volatile organic compounds in the Los Angeles basin in the 2010s.^[27]
• Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement.
• Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.
• Agricultural emissions contribute substantially to air pollution^{[28] [29]}
  • Fertilized farmland may be a major source of nitrogen oxides.^[30]

Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution) of different foods per 100g of protein^[31]

Food Types	Acidifying Emissions (g SO2eq per 100g protein)
Beef	343.6
Cheese	165.5
Pork	142.7
Lamb and mutton	139.0
Farmed crustaceans	133.1
Poultry	102.4
Farmed fish	65.9
Eggs	53.7
Groundnuts	22.6
Peas	8.5
Tofu	6.7

Natural sources [edit]

• Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little vegetation or no vegetation
• Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle
• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
• Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. During periods of active wildfires, smoke from uncontrolled biomass combustion can make up almost 75% of all air pollution by concentration.^[32]
• Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants – specifically, NO_x, SO₂, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds – to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.^[33] Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are some examples of vegetation that can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production from these species result in ozone levels up to eight times higher than the low-impact tree species.^[34]
• Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

Emission factors [edit]

Beijing air in 2005 after rain (left) and a smoggy day (right)

Air pollutant emission factors are reported representative values that attempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per tonne of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term averages.

There are 12 compounds in the list of persistent organic pollutants. Dioxins and furans are two of them and intentionally created by combustion of organics, like open burning of plastics. These compounds are also endocrine disruptors and can mutate the human genes.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a wide range of industrial sources.^[35] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency.^{[36] [37] [38] [39]}

Pollutants [edit]

An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced by processes such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include:

• Carbon dioxide ( CO₂ ): Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as "the leading pollutant"^[40] and "the worst climate pollutant".^[41] Carbon dioxide is a natural component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life and given off by the human respiratory system.^[42] This question of terminology has practical effects, for example as determining whether the U.S. Clean Air Act is deemed to regulate CO₂ emissions.^[43] CO₂ currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of earth's atmosphere, compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times,^[44] and billions of metric tons of CO₂ are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels.^[45] CO₂ increase in earth's atmosphere has been accelerating.^[46]
• Sulfur oxides (SO_x): particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO₂. SO₂ is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO₂, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO₂, forms H₂SO₄, and thus acid rain is formed. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.
• Nitrogen oxides (NO_x): Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO₂. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.
• Carbon monoxide (CO): CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic gas.^[47] It is a product of combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust contributes to the majority of carbon monoxide let into the atmosphere. It creates a smog type formation in the air that has been linked to many lung diseases and disruptions to the natural environment and animals.
• Volatile organic compounds (VOC): VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. They are categorized as either methane (CH₄) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.
• Particulate matter/particles, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosols – those made by human activities – currently account for approximately 10% of our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,^[48] altered lung function and lung cancer. Particulates are related to respiratory infections and can be particularly harmful to those already suffering from conditions like asthma.^[49]
• Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease.^{[50] [51]}
• Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products that are currently banned from use. These are gases which are released from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc. On release into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere. Here they come in contact with other gases and damage the ozone layer. This allows harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's surface. This can lead to skin cancer, eye disease and can even cause damage to plants.
• Ammonia: emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH₃. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.^[52] In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulfur to form secondary particles.^[53]
• Odors: such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes.
• Radioactive pollutants: produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

• Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area, which produces a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
• Ground level ozone (O₃) formed from NO_x and VOCs. Ozone is a key constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant and a constituent of smog.
• Peroxyacetyl nitrate (C₂H₃NO₅): similarly formed from NO_x and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

• A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
• A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulates

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potentially significant impacts on human health and the environment.

• This video provides an overview of a NASA study on the human fingerprint on global air quality.

Exposure [edit]

Up to 30% of Europeans living in cities are exposed to air pollutant levels exceeding EU air quality standards. Around 98% of Europeans living in cities are exposed to levels of air pollutants deemed damaging to health by the World Health Organization's more stringent guidelines.^[54]

Air pollution risk is a function of the hazard of the pollutant and the exposure to that pollutant. Air pollution exposure can be expressed for an individual, for certain groups (e.g. neighbourhoods or children living in a country), or for entire populations. For example, one may want to calculate the exposure to a hazardous air pollutant for a geographic area, which includes the various microenvironments and age groups. This can be calculated^[5] as an inhalation exposure. This would account for daily exposure in various settings (e.g. different indoor micro-environments and outdoor locations). The exposure needs to include different age and other demographic groups, especially infants, children, pregnant women and other sensitive subpopulations. The exposure to an air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the air pollutant with respect to the time spent in each setting and the respective inhalation rates for each subgroup for each specific time that the subgroup is in the setting and engaged in particular activities (playing, cooking, reading, working, spending time in traffic, etc.). For example, a small child's inhalation rate will be less than that of an adult. A child engaged in vigorous exercise will have a higher respiration rate than the same child in a sedentary activity. The daily exposure, then, needs to reflect the time spent in each micro-environmental setting and the type of activities in these settings. The air pollutant concentration in each microactivity/microenvironmental setting is summed to indicate the exposure.^[5] For some pollutants such as black carbon, traffic related exposures may dominate total exposure despite short exposure times since high concentrations coincide with proximity to major roads or participation to (motorized) traffic.^[55] A large portion of total daily exposure occurs as short peaks of high concentrations, but it remains unclear how to define peaks and determine their frequency and health impact.^[56]

In 2021, the WHO halved its recommended guideline limit for tiny particles from burning fossil fuels. The new limit for nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) is 75% lower.^[57]

Indoor air quality [edit]

Share of deaths from indoor air pollution

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H₂CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in cook stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of harmful smoke particulates into the air, inside and out.^{[58] [59]} Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.

Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a tent.^[60] Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly-adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.

Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organization (WHO),^[61] these may be defined as asbestosis, lung cancer, and peritoneal mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).

Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

Health effects [edit]

Even at levels lower than those considered safe by United States regulators, exposure to three components of air pollution, fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ozone, correlates with cardiac and respiratory illness.^[62] In 2020, air pollution caused one in eight deaths in Europe, and was a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases, including respiratory infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer.^[63] The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma^[64] and worsening of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency department visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.^[5] The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less than five years who live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.^[65]

Mortality [edit]

Share of deaths from outdoor air pollution, OWID

The World Health Organization estimated in 2014 that every year air pollution causes the premature death of some 7 million people worldwide.^[1] Studies published in March 2019 indicated that the number may be around 8.8 million.^[66] Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease, COPD, lung cancer, and lung infections.^[1]

Urban outdoor air pollution is estimated to cause 1.3 million deaths worldwide per year.^[67] Children are particularly at risk due to the immaturity of their respiratory organ systems.^[68] In 2015, outdoor air pollution, mostly by PM_2.5, was estimated to lead to 3.3 (95% CI 1.61–4.81) million premature deaths per year worldwide, predominantly in Asia.^[29] In 2021, the WHO reported that outdoor air pollution was estimated to cause 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2016.^[69] A 2020 study indicates that the global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE) from air pollution in 2015 was 2.9 years, substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence, albeit a signficant fraction of the LLE is unavoidable.^[70] Moreover, communities with the most exceptional aging have low ambient air pollution, suggesting a link between air pollution levels and longevity.^[71]

By region [edit]

India and China have the highest death rate due to air pollution.^{[72] [73]} India also has more deaths from asthma than any other nation according to the World Health Organization. In December 2013 air pollution was estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year.^[74] There is a positive correlation between pneumonia-related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicle emissions.^[75]

Annual premature European deaths caused by air pollution are estimated at 430,000^[76] to 800,000.^[66] An important cause of these deaths is nitrogen dioxide and other nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted by road vehicles.^[76] In a 2015 consultation document the UK government disclosed that nitrogen dioxide is responsible for 23,500 premature UK deaths per annum.^[77] Across the European Union, air pollution is estimated to reduce life expectancy by almost nine months.^[78]

Guidelines [edit]

The US EPA has estimated that limiting ground-level ozone concentration to 65 parts per billion (ppb), would avert 1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with the 75 ppb standard. The agency projected the more protective standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed work or school.^{[79] [80]} Following this assessment, the EPA acted to protect public health by lowering the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for ground-level ozone to 70 ppb.^[81] A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3,800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year.^{[82] [83] [84]} A 2021 study found that outdoor air pollution is associated with substantially increased mortality "even at low pollution levels below the current European and North American standards and WHO guideline values" shortly before the WHO adjusted its guidelines.^{[85] [86]}

Major causes [edit]

Further information: § Sources

Comparison of footprint-based and transboundary pollution-based relationships among G20 nations for the number of PM_2.5-related premature deaths.^[87]

The largest cause is air pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion^[88] – mostly the production and use of cars, electricity production and heating.^{[ additional citation(s) needed ]} A study by Greenpeace estimates there are 4.5 million annual premature deaths worldwide because of pollutants released by high-emission power stations and vehicle exhausts.^[89]

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well-validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.^{[90] [91]}

A study concluded that PM_2.5 air pollution induced by the contemporary free trade and consumption by the G20 nations causes two million premature deaths annually, suggesting that the average lifetime consumption of about ~28 people in these countries causes at least one premature death (average age ~67) while developing countries "cannot be expected" to implement or be able to implement countermeasures without external support or internationally coordinated efforts.^{[92] [87]}

Primary mechanisms [edit]

The WHO estimates that in 2016, ~58% of outdoor air pollution-related premature deaths were due to ischaemic heart disease and stroke.^[69] The mechanisms linking air pollution to increased cardiovascular mortality are uncertain, but probably include pulmonary and systemic inflammation.^[93]

Contemporary annual deaths [edit]

A study by scientists of U.K. and U.S. universities that uses a high spatial resolution model and an updated concentration-response function concluded in 2021 that 10.2 million global excess deaths in 2012 and 8.7 million in 2018 – or ^{[ dubious – discuss ]} – were due to air pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion, significantly higher than earlier estimates and with spatially subdivided mortality impacts.^{[94] [88]}

Cardiovascular disease [edit]

A 2007 review of evidence found that, ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor correlating with increased total mortality from cardiovascular events (range: 12% to 14% per 10 µg/m³ increase).^{[95] [ clarification needed ]}

Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest.^[96] A 2007 study found that in women, air pollution is not associated with hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke.^[97] Air pollution was also found to be associated with increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke in a cohort study in 2011.^[98] Associations are believed to be causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and atherosclerosis.^[99] Other mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have also been suggested.^{[100] [101]}

Lung disease [edit]

Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma^[102] and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)^[103] from increased exposure to traffic-related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution has been associated with increased hospitalization and mortality from asthma and COPD.^{[104] [105]} COPD includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema.^[106]

A study conducted in 1960–1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV₁ and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.^[107] More studies have shown that air pollution exposure from traffic reduces lung function development in children^[108] and lung function may be compromised by air pollution even at low concentrations.^[109] Air pollution exposure also cause lung cancer in non smokers.

It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazards become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas people suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.^[110]

Cancer (lung cancer) [edit]

Unprotected exposure to PM2.5 air pollution can be equivalent to smoking multiple cigarettes per day,^[111] potentially increasing the risk of cancer, which is mainly the result of environmental factors.^[112]

A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor for cancer in 2007 found solid data to conclude that long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases the overall risk of non-accidental mortality by 6% per a 10 microg/m³ increase. Exposure to PM2.5 was also associated with an increased risk of mortality from lung cancer (range: 15% to 21% per 10 microg/m³ increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 microg/m³ increase). The review further noted that living close to busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated risks of these three outcomes – increase in lung cancer deaths, cardiovascular deaths, and overall non-accidental deaths. The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO₂ increases mortality from lung cancer, but the data was insufficient to provide solid conclusions.^[113] Another investigation showed that higher activity level increases deposition fraction of aerosol particles in human lung and recommended avoiding heavy activities like running in outdoor space at polluted areas.^[114]

In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for people who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was higher for non-smokers than smokers.^[115] An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.^[116]

Kidney disease [edit]

In 2021, a study of 163,197 Taiwanese residents over the period of 2001–2016 estimated that every 5 μg/m³ decrease in the ambient concentration of PM2.5 was associated with a 25% reduced risk of chronic kidney disease development.^[117]

Children [edit]

In the United States, despite the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in non-attainment areas – regions in which the concentration of certain air pollutants exceeded federal standards.^[118] These dangerous pollutants are known as the criteria pollutants, and include ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Protective measures to ensure children's health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India, where buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate the "pea-soup" smog.^[119] A recent study in Europe has found that exposure to ultrafine particles can increase blood pressure in children.^[120] According to a WHO report in 2018, polluted air leads to the poisoning of millions of children under the age of 15, resulting in the death of some six hundred thousand children annually.^[121]

Prenatal exposure [edit]

Prenatal exposure to polluted air has been linked to a variety of neurodevelopmental disorders in children. For example, exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) was associated with reduced IQ scores and symptoms of anxiety and depression.^[122] They can also lead to detrimental perinatal health outcomes that are often fatal in developing countries.^[4] A 2014 study found that PAHs might play a role in the development of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).^[123] Researchers have also begun to find evidence for air pollution as a risk factor for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In Los Angeles, children who were living in areas with high levels of traffic-related air pollution were more likely to be diagnosed with autism between 3–5 years of age.^[124] The connection between air pollution and neurodevelopmental disorders in children is thought to be related to epigenetic dysregulation of the primordial germ cells, embryo, and fetus during a critical period. Some PAHs are considered endocrine disruptors and are lipid soluble. When they build up in adipose tissue, they can be transferred across the placenta.^[125]

Infants [edit]

Ambient levels of air pollution have been associated with preterm birth and low birth weight. A 2014 WHO worldwide survey on maternal and perinatal health found a statistically significant association between low birth weights (LBW) and increased levels of exposure to PM_2.5. Women in regions with greater than average PM_2.5 levels had statistically significant higher odds of pregnancy resulting in a low-birth weight infant even when adjusted for country-related variables.^[126] The effect is thought to be from stimulating inflammation and increasing oxidative stress.

A study by the University of York found that in 2010 exposure to PM_2.5 was strongly associated with 18% of preterm births globally, which was approximately 2.7 million premature births. The countries with the highest air pollution associated preterm births were in South and East Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and West sub-Saharan Africa.^[127]

The source of PM_2.5 differs greatly by region. In South and East Asia, pregnant women are frequently exposed to indoor air pollution because of wood and other biomass fuels being used for cooking, which are responsible for more than 80% of regional pollution. In the Middle East, North Africa and West sub-Saharan Africa, fine PM comes from natural sources, such as dust storms.^[127] The United States had an estimated 50,000 preterm births associated with exposure to PM2.5 in 2010.^[127]

A study performed by Wang, et al. between the years of 1988 and 1991 has found a correlation between sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and total suspended particulates (TSP) and preterm births and low birth weights in Beijing. A group of 74,671 pregnant women, in four separate regions of Beijing, were monitored from early pregnancy to delivery along with daily air pollution levels of sulfur Dioxide and TSP (along with other particulates). The estimated reduction in birth weight was 7.3 g for every 100 µg/m³ increase in SO2 and 6.9 g for each 100 µg/m³ increase in TSP. These associations were statistically significant in both summer and winter, although, summer was greater. The proportion of low birth weight attributable to air pollution, was 13%. This is the largest attributable risk ever reported for the known risk factors of low birth weight.^[128] Coal stoves, which are in 97% of homes, are a major source of air pollution in this area.

Brauer et al. studied the relationship between air pollution and proximity to a highway with pregnancy outcomes in a Vancouver cohort of pregnant woman using addresses to estimate exposure during pregnancy. Exposure to NO, NO₂, CO, PM10 and PM2.5 were associated with infants born small for gestational age (SGA). Women living less than 50 meters away from an expressway or highway were 26% more likely to give birth to a SGA infant.^[129]

"Clean" areas [edit]

Share of the population exposed to air pollution levels above WHO guidelines, OWID

Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant and costly, since a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A study published in 2017 found that even in areas of the U.S. where ozone and PM_2.5 meet federal standards, Medicare recipients who are exposed to more air pollution have higher mortality rates.^[130] A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM_2.5 and ozone concentrations) would produce $29 million in annual savings in the Metro Vancouver region in 2010.^[131] This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (illness) affects.

In 2020, scientists found that the boundary layer air over the Southern Ocean around Antarctica is 'unpolluted' by humans.^[132]

Central nervous system [edit]

Data is accumulating that air pollution exposure also affects the central nervous system.^[133]

Air pollution increases the risk of dementia in people over 50 years old.^[134] Childhood indoor air pollution may negatively affect cognitive function and neurodevelopment.^{[135] [136]} Prenatal exposure may also affect neurodevelopment.^{[137] [138]} Studies show that air pollution is associated with a variety of behavioral abnormalities, oxidative stress and neuro-inflammation and that it may contribute to Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.^[136]

In a June 2014 study conducted by researchers at the University of Rochester Medical Center, published in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives, it was discovered that early exposure to air pollution causes the same damaging changes in the brain as autism and schizophrenia. The study also shows that air pollution also affected short-term memory, learning ability, and impulsivity. Lead researcher Professor Deborah Cory-Slechta said that "When we looked closely at the ventricles, we could see that the white matter that normally surrounds them hadn't fully developed. It appears that inflammation had damaged those brain cells and prevented that region of the brain from developing, and the ventricles simply expanded to fill the space. Our findings add to the growing body of evidence that air pollution may play a role in autism, as well as in other neurodevelopmental disorders." In a study of mice, air pollution also has a more significant negative effect on males than on females.^{[139] [140] [141]}

In 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of significant episodic (situational) cognitive impairment from impurities in indoor air breathed by test subjects who were not informed about changes in the air quality. Researchers at the Harvard University and SUNY Upstate Medical University and Syracuse University measured the cognitive performance of 24 participants in three different controlled laboratory atmospheres that simulated those found in "conventional" and "green" buildings, as well as green buildings with enhanced ventilation. Performance was evaluated objectively using the widely used Strategic Management Simulation software simulation tool, which is a well-validated assessment test for executive decision-making in an unconstrained situation allowing initiative and improvisation. Significant deficits were observed in the performance scores achieved in increasing concentrations of either volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keeping other factors constant. The highest impurity levels reached are not uncommon in some classroom or office environments.^{[142] [143]} Higher PM_2.5 and CO₂ concentrations were shown to be associated with slower response times and reduced accuracy in tests.^[144]

Agricultural effects [edit]

In India in 2014, it was reported that air pollution by black carbon and ground level ozone had reduced crop yields in the most affected areas by almost half in 2011 when compared to 1980 levels.^[145]

Economic effects [edit]

Air pollution costs the world economy $5 trillion per year as a result of productivity losses and degraded quality of life, according to a joint study by the World Bank and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) at the University of Washington.^{[15] [16] [17]} These productivity losses are caused by deaths due to diseases caused by air pollution. One out of ten deaths in 2013 was caused by diseases associated with air pollution and the problem is getting worse. The problem is even more acute in the developing world. "Children under age 5 in lower-income countries are more than 60 times as likely to die from exposure to air pollution as children in high-income countries."^{[15] [16]} The report states that additional economic losses caused by air pollution, including health costs^[146] and the adverse effect on agricultural and other productivity were not calculated in the report, and thus the actual costs to the world economy are far higher than $5 trillion.

Other effects [edit]

Artist's illustration of an advanced ET civilization with industrial pollution

Artificial air pollution may be detectable on Earth from distant vantage points such as other planetary systems via atmospheric SETI – including NO₂ pollution levels and with telescopic technology close to today. It may also be possible to detect extraterrestrial civilizations this way.^{[147] [148] [149]}

Historical disasters [edit]

The world's worst short-term civilian pollution crisis was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster in India.^[150] Leaked industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A. (later bought by Dow Chemical Company), killed at least 3787 people and injured from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the 4 December Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died and more recent estimates put the figure at nearer 12,000.^[151] An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have caused at least 64 deaths.^[152] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the US occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania, in late October 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.^[153]

Reduction and regulation [edit]

Various pollution control technologies and strategies are available to reduce air pollution.^{[20] [21]} At its most basic level, land-use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land-use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population, as well as to protect the environment.

Because a large share of air pollution is caused by combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the reduction of these fuels can reduce air pollution drastically. Most effective is the switch to clean power sources such as wind power, solar power, hydro power which do not cause air pollution.^[154] Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as string trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels, and conversion to electric vehicles.

Titanium dioxide has been researched for its ability to reduce air pollution. Ultraviolet light will release free electrons from material, thereby creating free radicals, which break up VOCs and NO_x gases. One form is superhydrophilic.^[155]

Pollution-eating nanoparticles placed near a busy road were shown to absorb toxic emission from around 20 cars each day.^[156]

A very effective means to reduce air pollution is the transition to renewable energy. According to a study published in Energy and Environmental Science in 2015 the switch to 100% renewable energy in the United States would eliminate about 62,000 premature mortalities per year and about 42,000 in 2050, if no biomass were used. This would save about $600 billion in health costs a year due to reduced air pollution in 2050, or about 3.6% of the 2014 U.S. gross domestic product.^[154] Air quality improvement is a near-term benefit among the many societal benefits from climate change mitigation.

There is limited evidence that efforts to reduce particulate matter in the air can result in better health in Africa, the Middle East, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.^[157]

Alternatives to pollution [edit]

Support for a ban on high-emission vehicles in city centres in Europe, China and the US from respondents to the European Investment Bank Climate Survey

Support, use and infrastructure-expansion of forms of public transport that do not cause air pollution may be a critical key alternative to pollution

There are now practical alternatives to the principal causes of air pollution:

• Strategic substitution of air pollution sources in transport with lower-emission or, during lifecycle, emission-free forms of public transport^{[158] [159]} and bicycle use and infrastructure (as well as with remote work, reductions of work, relocations and localizations)
  • Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles are a critical component of a shift to sustainable transport; however, similar infrastructure and design decisions like electric vehicles may be associated with similar pollution for production as well as mining and resource exploitation for large numbers of needed batteries as well as the energy for their recharging^{[160] [161]}
• Areas downwind (over 20 miles) of major airports have more than double total particulate emissions in air than other areas, even when factoring in areas with frequent ship calls, and heavy freeway and city traffic like Los Angeles.^[162] Aviation biofuel mixed in with jetfuel at a 50/50 ratio can reduce jet derived cruise altitude particulate emissions by 50–70%, according to a NASA led 2017 study (however, this should imply ground level benefits to urban air pollution as well).^[163]
• Ship propulsion and idling can be switched to much cleaner fuels like natural gas. (Ideally a renewable source but not practical yet)
• Combustion of fossil fuels for space heating can be replaced by using ground source heat pumps and seasonal thermal energy storage.^[164]
• Electric power generation from burning fossil fuels can be replaced by power generation from nuclear and renewable. For poor nations, heating and home stoves that contribute much to regional air pollution can be replaced by a much cleaner fossil fuel like natural gas, or ideally, renewables.
• Motor vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key factor in urban air pollution, can be replaced by electric vehicles. Though lithium supply and cost is a limitation, there are alternatives. Herding more people into clean public transit such as electric trains can also help. Nevertheless, even in emission-free electric vehicles, rubber tires produce significant amounts of air pollution themselves, ranking as 13th worst pollutant in Los Angeles.^[165]
• Reducing travel in vehicles can curb pollution. After Stockholm reduced vehicle traffic in the central city with a congestion tax, nitrogen dioxide and PM10 pollution declined, as did acute pediatric asthma attacks.^[166]
• Biodigesters can be utilized in poor nations where slash and burn is prevalent, turning a useless commodity into a source of income. The plants can be gathered and sold to a central authority that will break it down in a large modern biodigester, producing much needed energy to use.
• Induced humidity and ventilation both can greatly dampen air pollution in enclosed spaces, which was found to be relatively high inside subway lines due to braking and friction and relatively less ironically inside transit buses than lower sitting passenger automobiles or subways.^[167]

Further information: § Sources

Control devices [edit]

Tarps and netting are often used to reduce the amount of dust released from construction sites.

The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices in industry and transportation. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.

• Particulate control
  • Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
  • Electrostatic precipitators: An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner, is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air), using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulates such as dust and smoke from the air stream.
  • Baghouses: Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).
  • Particulate scrubbers: A wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.
• Scrubbers
  • Baffle spray scrubber
  • Cyclonic spray scrubber
  • Ejector venturi scrubber
  • Mechanically aided scrubber
  • Spray tower
  • Wet scrubber
• NO_x control
  • LO-NOx burners
  • Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
  • Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
  • NOx scrubbers
  • Exhaust gas recirculation
  • Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
• VOC abatement
  • Adsorption systems, using activated carbon, such as Fluidized Bed Concentrator
  • Flares
  • Thermal oxidizers
  • Catalytic converters
  • Biofilters
  • Absorption (scrubbing)
  • Cryogenic condensers
  • Vapor recovery systems
• Acid gas/SO₂ control
  • Wet scrubbers
  • Dry scrubbers
  • Flue-gas desulfurization
• Mercury control
  • Sorbent injection technology
  • Electro-catalytic oxidation (ECO)
  • K-Fuel
• Dioxin and furan control
• Miscellaneous associated equipment
  • Source capturing systems
  • Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Monitoring [edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2021)

Spatiotemporal monitoring of air quality may be necessary for improving air quality, and thereby the health and safety of the public, and assessing impacts of interventions.^[168] Such monitoring is done to different extents with different regulatory requirements with discrepant regional coverage by a variety of organizations and governance entities such as using a variety of technologies for use of the data and sensing such mobile IoT sensors,^[169] satellites,^{[170] [171] [172]} and monitoring stations.^{[173] [174]} Some websites attempt to map air pollution levels using available data.^{[175] [176]}

Regulations [edit]

In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards and E.U. Air Quality Directive^[177]) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these target levels. The second class (such as the North American air quality index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants.

Canada [edit]

In Canada, air pollution and associated health risks are measured with the Air Quality Health Index (AQHI). It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution.

The AQHI is a federal program jointly coordinated by Health Canada and Environment Canada. However, the AQHI program would not be possible without the commitment and support of the provinces, municipalities and NGOs. From air quality monitoring to health risk communication and community engagement, local partners are responsible for the vast majority of work related to AQHI implementation. The AQHI provides a number from 1 to 10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated with local air quality. Occasionally, when the amount of air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local air quality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight and tomorrow and provides associated health advice.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

+

Risk:

Low (1–3)

Moderate (4–6)

High (7–10)

Very high (above 10)

As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution can trigger discomfort for the sensitive population, the index has been developed as a continuum: The higher the number, the greater the health risk and need to take precautions. The index describes the level of health risk associated with this number as 'low', 'moderate', 'high' or 'very high', and suggests steps that can be taken to reduce exposure.^[178]

Health risk	Air Quality Health Index	Health messages[179]
		At risk population	General population
Low	1–3	Enjoy your usual outdoor activities.	Ideal air quality for outdoor activities
Moderate	4–6	Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you are experiencing symptoms.	No need to modify your usual outdoor activities unless you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.
High	7–10	Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also take it easy.	Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.
Very high	Above 10	Avoid strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also avoid outdoor physical exertion and should stay indoors.	Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors, especially if you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.

The measurement is based on the observed relationship of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ground-level ozone (O₃) and particulates (PM_2.5) with mortality, from an analysis of several Canadian cities. Significantly, all three of these pollutants can pose health risks, even at low levels of exposure, especially among those with pre-existing health problems.

When developing the AQHI, Health Canada's original analysis of health effects included five major air pollutants: particulates, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), as well as sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and carbon monoxide (CO). The latter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health effects and were removed from the AQHI formulation.

The AQHI does not measure the effects of odour, pollen, dust, heat or humidity.

Germany [edit]

TA Luft is the German air quality regulation.

Governing urban air pollution [edit]

In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management provides a common strategy against which member states can "set objectives for ambient air quality in order to avoid, prevent or reduce harmful effects on human health and the environment ... and improve air quality where it is unsatisfactory".^[180]

On 25 July 2008 in the case Dieter Janecek v Freistaat Bayern, the European Court of Justice ruled that under this directive^[180] citizens have the right to require national authorities to implement a short term action plan that aims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality limit values.^{[181] [182]}

This important case law appears to confirm the role of the EC as centralised regulator to European nation-states as regards air pollution control. It places a supranational legal obligation on the UK to protect its citizens from dangerous levels of air pollution, furthermore superseding national interests with those of the citizen.

In 2010, the European Commission (EC) threatened the UK with legal action against the successive breaching of PM10 limit values.^[183] The UK government has identified that if fines are imposed, they could cost the nation upwards of £300 million per year.^[184]

In March 2011, the Greater London Built-up Area remained the only UK region in breach of the EC's limit values, and was given three months to implement an emergency action plan aimed at meeting the EU Air Quality Directive.^[185] The City of London has dangerous levels of PM10 concentrations, estimated to cause 3000 deaths per year within the city.^[186] As well as the threat of EU fines, in 2010 it was threatened with legal action for scrapping the western congestion charge zone, which is claimed to have led to an increase in air pollution levels.^[187]

In response to these charges, Boris Johnson, Mayor of London, has criticised the current need for European cities to communicate with Europe through their nation state's central government, arguing that in future "A great city like London" should be permitted to bypass its government and deal directly with the European Commission regarding its air quality action plan.^[185]

This can be interpreted as recognition that cities can transcend the traditional national government organisational hierarchy and develop solutions to air pollution using global governance networks, for example through transnational relations. Transnational relations include but are not exclusive to national governments and intergovernmental organisations,^[188] allowing sub-national actors including cities and regions to partake in air pollution control as independent actors.

Global city partnerships can be built into networks, for example the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, of which London is a member. The C40 is a public 'non-state' network of the world's leading cities that aims to curb their greenhouse emissions.^[189] The C40 has been identified as 'governance from the middle' and is an alternative to intergovernmental policy.^[190] It has the potential to improve urban air quality as participating cities "exchange information, learn from best practices and consequently mitigate carbon dioxide emissions independently from national government decisions".^[189] A criticism of the C40 network is that its exclusive nature limits influence to participating cities and risks drawing resources away from less powerful city and regional actors.

Hotspots [edit]

Air pollution hotspots are areas where air pollution emissions expose individuals to increased negative health effects.^[191] They are particularly common in highly populated, urban areas, where there may be a combination of stationary sources (e.g. industrial facilities) and mobile sources (e.g. cars and trucks) of pollution. Emissions from these sources can cause respiratory disease, childhood asthma,^[64] cancer, and other health problems. Fine particulate matter such as diesel soot, which contributes to more than 3.2 million premature deaths around the world each year, is a significant problem. It is very small and can lodge itself within the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Diesel soot is concentrated in densely populated areas, and one in six people in the U.S. live near a diesel pollution hot spot.^[192]

External video
AirVisual Earth – realtime map of global wind and air pollution[193]

While air pollution hotspots affect a variety of populations, some groups are more likely to be located in hotspots. Previous studies have shown disparities in exposure to pollution by race and/or income. Hazardous land uses (toxic storage and disposal facilities, manufacturing facilities, major roadways) tend to be located where property values and income levels are low. Low socioeconomic status can be a proxy for other kinds of social vulnerability, including race, a lack of ability to influence regulation and a lack of ability to move to neighborhoods with less environmental pollution. These communities bear a disproportionate burden of environmental pollution and are more likely to face health risks such as cancer or asthma.^[194]

Studies show that patterns in race and income disparities not only indicate a higher exposure to pollution but also higher risk of adverse health outcomes.^[195] Communities characterized by low socioeconomic status and racial minorities can be more vulnerable to cumulative adverse health impacts resulting from elevated exposure to pollutants than more privileged communities.^[195] Blacks and Latinos generally face more pollution than whites and Asians, and low-income communities bear a higher burden of risk than affluent ones.^[194] Racial discrepancies are particularly distinct in suburban areas of the Southern United States and metropolitan areas of the Midwestern and Western United States.^[196] Residents in public housing, who are generally low-income and cannot move to healthier neighborhoods, are highly affected by nearby refineries and chemical plants.^[197]

Cities [edit]

Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as measured from satellite 2002–2004

Deaths from air pollution in 2004

Most polluted cities by PM[198]
Particulate matter, μg/m3 (2016)	City
173	Kanpur, India
172	Faridabad, India
149	Gaya, India
146	Varanasi, India
144	Patna, India
143	Dehli, India
138	Lucknow, India
132	Bamenda, Cameroon
131	Agra, India

Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries where environmental regulations are relatively lax or nonexistent. However, even populated areas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution, with Los Angeles and Rome being two examples.^[199] Between 2002 and 2011 the incidence of lung cancer in Beijing near doubled. While smoking remains the leading cause of lung cancer in China, the number of smokers is falling while lung cancer rates are rising.^[200]

Projections [edit]

According to a projection, by 2030 half of the world's pollution emissions could be generated by Africa.^[201] Potential contributors to such an outcome include increased burning activities (such as the burning of open waste), traffic, agri-food and chemical industries, sand dust from the Sahara, and overall population growth.

According to OECD, by 2050 outdoor air pollution (particulate matter and ground-level ozone) is projected to become the top cause of environmentally related deaths worldwide.^[202]

See also [edit]

• Air pollutant concentrations
• Air stagnation
• ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution
• Asian brown cloud
• Atmospheric chemistry
• Beehive burner
• BenMAP
• Best Available Control Technology
• Critical load
• Emission standard
• Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database
• Environmental agreement
• Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion
• Global Atmosphere Watch
• Global dimming
• Great Smog of London
• Haze
• Health Effects Institute (HEI)
• Indicator value
• Intake fraction
• International Agency for Research on Cancer
• International Day of Clean Air for Blue Skies
• Kyoto Protocol
• Light water reactor sustainability
• List of smogs by death toll
• Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate
• NASA Clean Air Study
• Non-exhaust emissions
• Organic molecular tracers
• Particulate matter sampler
• Polluter pays principle
• Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act
• Tire fire

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} "7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution". WHO. 25 March 2014. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
2. ^ Allen, J. L.; Klocke, C.; Morris-Schaffer, K.; Conrad, K.; Sobolewski, M.; Cory-Slechta, D. A. (June 2017). "Cognitive Effects of Air Pollution Exposures and Potential Mechanistic Underpinnings". Current Environmental Health Reports. 4 (2): 180–191. doi:10.1007/s40572-017-0134-3. PMC5499513. PMID 28435996.
3. ^ Newbury, Joanne B.; Stewart, Robert; Fisher, Helen L.; Beevers, Sean; Dajnak, David; Broadbent, Matthew; Pritchard, Megan; Shiode, Narushige; Heslin, Margaret; Hammoud, Ryan; Hotopf, Matthew (2021). "Association between air pollution exposure and mental health service use among individuals with first presentations of psychotic and mood disorders: retrospective cohort study". The British Journal of Psychiatry (published 19 August 2021). 219 (6): 678–685. doi:10.1192/bjp.2021.119. ISSN 0007-1250.
4. ^ ^{a b} Ghosh, Rakesh; Causey, Kate; Burkart, Katrin; Wozniak, Sara; Cohen, Aaron; Brauer, Michael (28 September 2021). "Ambient and household PM2.5 pollution and adverse perinatal outcomes: A meta-regression and analysis of attributable global burden for 204 countries and territories". PLOS Medicine. 18 (9): e1003718. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003718. ISSN 1549-1676. PMC8478226. PMID 34582444.
5. ^ ^{a b c d} Daniel A. Vallero. "Fundamentals of Air Pollution". Elsevier Academic Press.
6. ^ "Fine Particulate Matter Map Shows Premature Mortality Due to Air Pollution. 2013".
7. ^ Silva, Raquel A; West, J Jason; Zhang, Yuqiang; Anenberg, Susan C; Lamarque, Jean-François; Shindell, Drew T; Collins, William J; Dalsoren, Stig; Faluvegi, Greg; Folberth, Gerd; Horowitz, Larry W; Nagashima, Tatsuya; Naik, Vaishali; Rumbold, Steven; Skeie, Ragnhild; Sudo, Kengo; Takemura, Toshihiko; Bergmann, Daniel; Cameron-Smith, Philip; Cionni, Irene; Doherty, Ruth M; Eyring, Veronika; Josse, Beatrice; MacKenzie, I A; Plummer, David; Righi, Mattia; Stevenson, David S; Strode, Sarah; Szopa, Sophie; Zeng, Guang (2013). "Global premature mortality due to anthropogenic outdoor air pollution and the contribution of past climate change". Environmental Research Letters. 8 (3): 034005. Bibcode:2013ERL.....8c4005S. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034005.
8. ^ Lelieveld, J.; Klingmüller, K.; Pozzer, A.; Burnett, R. T.; Haines, A.; Ramanathan, V. (25 March 2019). "Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (15): 7192–7197. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.7192L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1819989116. PMC6462052. PMID 30910976. S2CID 85515425.
9. ^ "Energy and Air Pollution" (PDF). Iea.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
10. ^ "Study Links 6.5 Million Deaths Each Year to Air Pollution". The New York Times. 26 June 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
11. ^ "Reports". WorstPolluted.org. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
12. ^ "Cheap air pollution monitors help plot your walk". European Investment Bank . Retrieved 18 May 2021.
13. ^ "9 out of 10 people worldwide breathe polluted air, but more countries are taking action". www.who.int . Retrieved 18 May 2021.
14. ^ "Assessing the risks to health from air pollution—European Environment Agency". www.eea.europa.eu . Retrieved 18 May 2021.
15. ^ ^{a b c} World Bank; Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation at University of Washington – Seattle (2016). The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action (PDF). Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. xii.
16. ^ ^{a b c} McCauley, Lauren (8 September 2016). "Making Case for Clean Air, World Bank Says Pollution Cost Global Economy $5 Trillion". Common Dreams. Retrieved 3 February 2018.
17. ^ ^{a b} "The Rising Cost of Smog". Fortune: 15. 1 February 2018. ISSN 0015-8259.
18. ^ Batool, Rubeena; Zaman, Khalid; Khurshid, Muhammad Adnan; Sheikh, Salman Masood; Aamir, Alamzeb; Shoukry, Alaa Mohamd; Sharkawy, Mohamed A.; Aldeek, Fares; Khader, Jameel; Gani, Showkat (October 2019). "Economics of death and dying: a critical evaluation of environmental damages and healthcare reforms across the globe". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 26 (29): 29799–29809. doi:10.1007/s11356-019-06159-x. ISSN 1614-7499. PMID 31407261. S2CID 199528114.
19. ^ Bherwani, Hemant; Nair, Moorthy; Musugu, Kavya; Gautam, Sneha; Gupta, Ankit; Kapley, Atya; Kumar, Rakesh (10 June 2020). "Valuation of air pollution externalities: comparative assessment of economic damage and emission reduction under COVID-19 lockdown". Air Quality, Atmosphere, & Health. 13 (6): 683–694. doi:10.1007/s11869-020-00845-3. ISSN 1873-9318. PMC7286556. PMID 32837611.
20. ^ ^{a b} Fensterstock, J. C.; Kurtzweg, J. A.; Ozolins, G. (1971). "Reduction of Air Pollution Potential through Environmental Planning". Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. 21 (7): 395–399. doi:10.1080/00022470.1971.10469547. PMID 5148260.
21. ^ ^{a b} Fensterstock, Ketcham and Walsh, The Relationship of Land Use and Transportation Planning to Air Quality Management, Ed. George Hagevik, May 1972.
22. ^ Huo, Hong; Zhang, Qiang; Guan, Dabo; Su, Xin; Zhao, Hongyan; He, Kebin (16 December 2014). "Examining Air Pollution in China Using Production- And Consumption-Based Emissions Accounting Approaches". Environmental Science & Technology. 48 (24): 14139–14147. Bibcode:2014EnST...4814139H. doi:10.1021/es503959t. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 25401750.
23. ^ "Health crisis: Up to a billion tons of waste potentially burned in the open every year". phys.org . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
24. ^ Cook, E.; Velis, C. A. (6 January 2021). "Global Review on Safer End of Engineered Life". Global Review on Safer End of Engineered Life . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
25. ^ David Pennise; Kirk Smith. "Biomass Pollution Basics" (PDF). WHO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2012.
26. ^ "Indoor air pollution and household energy". WHO and UNEP. 2011.
27. ^ Chatterjee, Rhitu (15 February 2018). "Wall Paint, Perfumes and Cleaning Agents Are Polluting Our Air". NPR . Retrieved 12 March 2019.
28. ^ Sun, Feifei; Dai, Yun; Yu, Xiaohua (December 2017). "Air pollution, food production and food security: A review from the perspective of food system". Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 16 (12): 2945–2962. doi:10.1016/S2095-3119(17)61814-8.
29. ^ ^{a b} Lelieveld, J.; Evans, J. S.; Fnais, M.; Giannadaki, D.; Pozzer, A. (September 2015). "The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale". Nature. 525 (7569): 367–371. doi:10.1038/nature15371. ISSN 1476-4687. Whereas in much of the USA and in a few other countries emissions from traffic and power generation are important, in eastern USA, Europe, Russia and East Asia agricultural emissions make the largest relative contribution to PM2.5, with the estimate of overall health impact depending on assumptions regarding particle toxicity.
30. ^ Diep, Francie (31 January 2018). "California's Farms Are an Even Larger Source of Air Pollution Than We Thought". Pacific Standard . Retrieved 2 February 2018.
31. ^ Nemecek, T.; Poore, J. (1 June 2018). "Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers". Science. 360 (6392): 987–992. Bibcode:2018Sci...360..987P. doi:10.1126/science.aaq0216. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 29853680. S2CID 206664954.
32. ^ "Education Data, Visualizations & Graphics on particulate pollution". www.cleanairresources.com . Retrieved 20 March 2019.
33. ^ Goldstein, Allen H.; Charles D. Koven; Colette L. Heald; Inez Y. Fung (5 May 2009). "Biogenic carbon and anthropogenic pollutants combine to form a cooling haze over the southeastern United States". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (22): 8835–40. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.8835G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0904128106. PMC2690056. PMID 19451635.
34. ^ Fischetti, Mark (2014). "Trees That Pollute". Scientific American. 310 (6): 14. Bibcode:2014SciAm.310f..14F. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0614-14. PMID 25004561.
35. ^ "AP 42, Volume I". Epa.gov. Archived from the original on 24 September 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
36. ^ "United Kingdom's emission factor database". Naei.org.uk. Archived from the original on 7 July 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
37. ^ "EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook—2009". Eea.europa.eu. 19 June 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
38. ^ "Environmental Pollution". Theenvironmentalblog.org. 16 December 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
39. ^ "Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (reference manual)". Ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp. Archived from the original on 21 March 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
40. ^ "Air Pollution Causes, Effects, and Solutions". National Geographic. 9 October 2016. Archived from the original on 21 February 2018. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
41. ^ Vaidyanathan, ClimateWire, Gayathri. "The Worst Climate Pollution Is Carbon Dioxide". Scientific American.
42. ^ Johnson, Keith (18 April 2009). "How Carbon Dioxide Became a 'Pollutant'". Wall Street Journal.
43. ^ Barbalace, Roberta C. (7 November 2006). "CO2 Pollution and Global Warming: When does carbon dioxide become a pollutant?". Environmentalchemistry.com.
44. ^ "Graphic: The relentless rise of carbon dioxide". Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. NASA.
45. ^ "How much of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions are associated with electricity generation?". Retrieved 16 December 2016.
46. ^ "Full Mauna Loa CO2 record". Earth System Research Laboratory . Retrieved 10 January 2017.
47. ^ "Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – NHS". 17 October 2017.
48. ^ "Evidence growing of air pollution's link to heart disease, death". Archived from the original on 3 June 2010. Retrieved 18 May 2010. CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) // American Heart Association. 10 May 2010
49. ^ Balmes, J.R.; Fine, J.M.; Sheppard, D. (1987). "Symptomatic bronchoconstriction after short-term inhalation of sulfur dioxide". Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 136 (5): 1117–21. doi:10.1164/ajrccm/136.5.1117. PMID 3674573.
50. ^ "Newly detected air pollutant mimics damaging effects of cigarette smoke" (PDF). Physorg.com . Retrieved 29 August 2010.
51. ^ "Infant Inhalation Of Ultra-fine Air Pollution Linked To Adult Lung Disease". Sciencedaily.com. 23 July 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
52. ^ Carrington, Damian (4 November 2021). "Ammonia from farms behind 60% of UK particulate air pollution – study". The Guardian . Retrieved 7 November 2021.
53. ^ "The Effect of Changing Background Emissions on External Cost Estimates for Secondary Particulates". Open environmental sciences. 2008.
54. ^ "Air pollution exposure in cities". European Environment Agency . Retrieved 9 March 2019.
55. ^ Dons, E (2011). "Impact of time-activity patterns on personal exposure to black carbon". Atmospheric Environment. 45 (21): 3594–3602. Bibcode:2011AtmEn..45.3594D. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.03.064.
56. ^ Dons, E (2019). "Transport most likely to cause air pollution peak exposures in everyday life: Evidence from over 2000 days of personal monitoring". Atmospheric Environment. 213: 424–432. Bibcode:2019AtmEn.213..424D. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.06.035. hdl:10044/1/80194. S2CID 197131423.
57. ^ Carrington, Damian (22 September 2021). "WHO slashes guideline limits on air pollution from fossil fuels". The Guardian . Retrieved 22 September 2021.
58. ^ Duflo, Esther; Greenstone, Michael; Hanna, Rema (26 November 2008). "Indoor air pollution, health and economic well-being". S.A.P.I.EN.S. 1 (1). Retrieved 29 August 2010.
59. ^ "Improved Clean Cookstoves". Project Drawdown. 7 February 2020. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
60. ^ "Bucknell tent death: Hannah Thomas-Jones died from carbon monoxide poisoning". BBC News. 17 January 2013. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
61. ^ World Health Organization (WHO)
62. ^ Science Daily, 22 February 2021 "Long-Term Exposure to Low Levels of Air Pollution Increases Risk of Heart and Lung Disease"
63. ^ "EU says one in eight deaths is linked to pollution". BBC News. 8 September 202. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
64. ^ ^{a b} Carrington, Damian (18 May 2021). "Air pollution linked to 'huge' rise in child asthma GP visits". The Guardian . Retrieved 22 May 2021.
65. ^ "Air quality and health". Who.int . Retrieved 26 November 2011.
66. ^ ^{a b} Carrington, Damian (12 March 2019). "Air pollution deaths are double previous estimates, finds research". Theguardian.com . Retrieved 12 March 2019.
67. ^ Huang, Yuh-Chin T. (October 2014). "Outdoor air pollution: a global perspective". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 56 Suppl 10: S3–7. doi:10.1097/JOM.0000000000000240. ISSN 1536-5948.
68. ^ "Air pollution". World Health Organization . Retrieved 2 December 2016.
69. ^ ^{a b} "Ambient (outdoor) air pollution". www.who.int . Retrieved 20 December 2021.
70. ^ Lelieveld, Jos; Pozzer, Andrea; Pöschl, Ulrich; Fnais, Mohammed; Haines, Andy; Münzel, Thomas (1 September 2020). "Loss of life expectancy from air pollution compared to other risk factors: a worldwide perspective". Cardiovascular Research. 116 (11): 1910–1917. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvaa025. ISSN 0008-6363.
71. ^ Baccarelli, Andrea A.; Hales, Nick; Burnett, Richard T.; Jerrett, Michael; Mix, Carter; Dockery, Douglas W.; Pope, C. Arden (1 November 2016). "Particulate Air Pollution, Exceptional Aging, and Rates of Centenarians: A Nationwide Analysis of the United States, 1980–2010". Environmental Health Perspectives. 124 (11): 1744–1750. doi:10.1289/EHP197.
72. ^ The New York Times International Weekly 2 February 2014 'Beijing's Air Would Be Called Good In Delhi' by Gardiner Harris.
73. ^ Owusu, Phebe Asantewaa; Sarkodie, Samuel Asumadu (10 November 2020). "Global estimation of mortality, disability-adjusted life years and welfare cost from exposure to ambient air pollution". Science of the Total Environment. 742: 140636. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.742n0636O. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140636. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32721745. S2CID 220848545.
74. ^ Mr Chen's claim was made in The Lancet (December 2013 issue) and reported in The Daily Telegraph 8 January 2014 p. 15 'Air pollution killing up to 500,000 Chinese each year, admits former health minister.
75. ^ "Study links traffic pollution to thousands of deaths". The Guardian. London, UK. 15 April 2008. Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 15 April 2008.
76. ^ ^{a b} "Car emissions: taking tests out of the lab and onto the road – News". European Parliament. 25 February 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
77. ^ "Complete Guide To The 'Toxin Tax' For Diesel Cars". Motorway . Retrieved 25 May 2017.
78. ^ "Air pollution causes early deaths". BBC. 21 February 2005. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
79. ^ Tankersley, Jim (8 January 2010). "EPA proposes nation's strictest smog limits ever". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 14 August 2012.
80. ^ "EPA slideshow" (PDF) . Retrieved 11 December 2012.
81. ^ "EPA Strengthens Ozone Standards to Protect Public Health/Science-based standards to reduce sick days, asthma attacks, emergency room visits, greatly outweigh costs (10/1/2015)". Yosemite.epa.gov . Retrieved 11 January 2018.
82. ^ Grossni, Mark (13 November 2008). "Human cost of valley's dirty air: $6.3 billion". Sacramento Bee. Archived from the original on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
83. ^ Sahagun, Louis (13 November 2008). "Pollution saps state's economy, study says". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 14 August 2012.
84. ^ Kay, Jane (13 November 2008). "Bad air costing state's economy billions". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
85. ^ "Human health may be at risk from long-term exposure to air pollution below current air quality standards and guidelines". British Medical Journal . Retrieved 18 October 2021.
86. ^ Strak, Maciej; Weinmayr, Gudrun; Rodopoulou, Sophia; Chen, Jie; Hoogh, Kees de; Andersen, Zorana J.; Atkinson, Richard; Bauwelinck, Mariska; Bekkevold, Terese; Bellander, Tom; Boutron-Ruault, Marie-Christine; Brandt, Jørgen; Cesaroni, Giulia; Concin, Hans; Fecht, Daniela; Forastiere, Francesco; Gulliver, John; Hertel, Ole; Hoffmann, Barbara; Hvidtfeldt, Ulla Arthur; Janssen, Nicole A. H.; Jöckel, Karl-Heinz; Jørgensen, Jeanette T.; Ketzel, Matthias; Klompmaker, Jochem O.; Lager, Anton; Leander, Karin; Liu, Shuo; Ljungman, Petter; Magnusson, Patrik K. E.; Mehta, Amar J.; Nagel, Gabriele; Oftedal, Bente; Pershagen, Göran; Peters, Annette; Raaschou-Nielsen, Ole; Renzi, Matteo; Rizzuto, Debora; Schouw, Yvonne T. van der; Schramm, Sara; Severi, Gianluca; Sigsgaard, Torben; Sørensen, Mette; Stafoggia, Massimo; Tjønneland, Anne; Verschuren, W. M. Monique; Vienneau, Danielle; Wolf, Kathrin; Katsouyanni, Klea; Brunekreef, Bert; Hoek, Gerard; Samoli, Evangelia (2 September 2021). "Long term exposure to low level air pollution and mortality in eight European cohorts within the ELAPSE project: pooled analysis". BMJ. 374: n1904. doi:10.1136/bmj.n1904. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC8409282. PMID 34470785.
87. ^ ^{a b} Nansai, Keisuke; Tohno, Susumu; Chatani, Satoru; Kanemoto, Keiichiro; Kagawa, Shigemi; Kondo, Yasushi; Takayanagi, Wataru; Lenzen, Manfred (2 November 2021). "Consumption in the G20 nations causes particulate air pollution resulting in two million premature deaths annually". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 6286. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-26348-y. ISSN 2041-1723.
88. ^ ^{a b} Vohra, Karn; Vodonos, Alina; Schwartz, Joel; Marais, Eloise A.; Sulprizio, Melissa P.; Mickley, Loretta J. (1 April 2021). "Global mortality from outdoor fine particle pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion: Results from GEOS-Chem". Environmental Research. 195: 110754. Bibcode:2021ER....195k0754V. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.110754. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 33577774. S2CID 231909881. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
89. ^ "Air pollution causing 65,000 annual deaths in Middle East, report finds". The National . Retrieved 24 July 2020.
90. ^ Lucking, A. J.; Lundback, M.; Mills, N. L.; Faratian, D.; Barath, S. L.; Pourazar, J.; Cassee, F. R.; Donaldson, K.; Boon, N. A.; Badimon, J. J.; Sandstrom, T.; Blomberg, A.; Newby, D. E. (2008). "Diesel exhaust inhalation increases thrombus formation in man". European Heart Journal. 29 (24): 3043–51. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehn464. PMID 18952612.
91. ^ Törnqvist, H. K.; Mills, N. L.; Gonzalez, M.; Miller, M. R.; Robinson, S. D.; Megson, I. L.; MacNee, W.; Donaldson, K.; Söderberg, S.; Newby, D. E.; Sandström, T.; Blomberg, A. (2007). "Persistent Endothelial Dysfunction in Humans after Diesel Exhaust Inhalation". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 176 (4): 395–400. doi:10.1164/rccm.200606-872OC. PMID 17446340.
92. ^ "Air pollution from G20 consumers caused two million deaths in 2010". New Scientist . Retrieved 11 December 2021.
93. ^ Pope, C. A. (15 December 2003). "Cardiovascular Mortality and Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution: Epidemiological Evidence of General Pathophysiological Pathways of Disease". Circulation. 109 (1): 71–77. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000108927.80044.7F. PMID 14676145.
94. ^ Green, Matthew (9 February 2021). "Fossil fuel pollution causes one in five premature deaths globally: study". Reuters . Retrieved 5 March 2021.
95. ^ Chen, H; Goldberg, MS; Villeneuve, PJ (October–December 2008). "A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases". Reviews on Environmental Health. 23 (4): 243–97. doi:10.1515/reveh.2008.23.4.243. PMID 19235364. S2CID 24481623.
96. ^ Mateen, F. J.; Brook, R. D. (2011). "Air Pollution as an Emerging Global Risk Factor for Stroke". JAMA. 305 (12): 1240–41. doi:10.1001/jama.2011.352. PMID 21427378.
97. ^ Miller K. A.; Siscovick D. S.; Sheppard L.; Shepherd K.; Sullivan J. H.; Anderson G. L.; Kaufman J. D. (2007). "Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women". The New England Journal of Medicine. 356 (5): 447–58. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa054409. PMID 17267905.
98. ^ Andersen, Z. J.; Kristiansen, L. C.; Andersen, K. K.; Olsen, T. S.; Hvidberg, M.; Jensen, S. S.; Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2011). "Stroke and Long-Term Exposure to Outdoor Air Pollution From Nitrogen Dioxide: A Cohort Study". Stroke. 43 (2): 320–25. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.629246. PMID 22052517.
99. ^ Provost, E; Madhloum, N; Int Panis, L; De Boever, P; Nawrot, TS (May 2015). "Carotid intima-media thickness, a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis, and particulate air pollution exposure: the meta-analytical evidence". PLOS ONE. 10 (5): e0127014. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1027014P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127014. PMC4430520. PMID 25970426. S2CID 11741224.
100. ^ Brook, RD; Rajagopalan, S; Pope, CA III; Brook, JR; Bhatnagar, A (2010). "Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: An update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Circulation. 121 (21): 2331–78. doi:10.1161/cir.0b013e3181dbece1. hdl:2027.42/78373. PMID 20458016.
101. ^ Louwies, T; Int Panis, L; Kicinski, M; De Boever, P; Nawrot, Tim S (2013). "Retinal Microvascular Responses to Short-Term Changes in Particulate Air Pollution in Healthy Adults". Environmental Health Perspectives. 121 (9): 1011–16. doi:10.1289/ehp.1205721. PMC3764070. PMID 23777785. S2CID 6748539.
102. ^ Gehring, U.; Wijga, A. H.; Brauer, M.; Fischer, P.; de Jongste, J. C.; Kerkhof, M.; Brunekreef, B. (2010). "Traffic-related air pollution and the development of asthma and allergies during the first 8 years of life". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 181 (6): 596–603. doi:10.1164/rccm.200906-0858OC. PMID 19965811.
103. ^ Andersen, Z. J.; Hvidberg, M.; Jensen, S. S.; Ketzel, M.; Loft, S.; Sorensen, M.; Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2011). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution: a cohort study. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 183 (4): 455–461. doi:10.1164/rccm.201006-0937OC. PMID 20870755. S2CID 3945468.
104. ^ Health; Occupational; Thoracic Society, American (1996). "[Comparative Study Review]". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 153 (1): 3–50. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.153.1.8542133. PMID 8542133.
105. ^ Andersen, Z. J.; Bonnelykke, K.; Hvidberg, M.; Jensen, S. S.; Ketzel, M.; Loft, S.; Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2011). "Long-term exposure to air pollution and asthma hospitalisations in older adults: a cohort study". Thorax. 67 (1): 6–11. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2011-200711. PMID 21890573.
106. ^ Zoidis, John D. (1999). "The Impact of Air Pollution on COPD". RT: For Decision Makers in Respiratory Care.
107. ^ Holland WW, Reid DD. "The urban factor in chronic bronchitis" Lancet 1965;I:445–448.
108. ^ Gauderman, W (2007). "Effect of exposure to traffic on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age: a cohort study". The Lancet. 369 (9561): 571–77. CiteSeerX10.1.1.541.1258. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60037-3. PMID 17307103. S2CID 852646.
109. ^ Int Panis, L (2017). "Short-term air pollution exposure decreases lung function: a repeated measures study in healthy adults". Environmental Health. 16 (1): 60. doi:10.1186/s12940-017-0271-z. PMC5471732. PMID 28615020. S2CID 20491472.
110. ^ J. Sunyer (2001). "Urban air pollution and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary disease: a review". European Respiratory Journal. 17 (5): 1024–33. doi:10.1183/09031936.01.17510240. PMID 11488305.
111. ^ "Education Data, Visualizations & Graphics on Air Quality and PM2.5". www.cleanairresources.com . Retrieved 19 September 2019.
112. ^ Gallagher, James (17 December 2015). "Cancer is not just 'bad luck' but down to environment, study suggests". BBC . Retrieved 17 December 2015.
113. ^ Chen, H; Goldberg, M. S.; Villeneuve, P. J. (2008). "A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases". Reviews on Environmental Health. 23 (4): 243–97. doi:10.1515/reveh.2008.23.4.243. PMID 19235364. S2CID 24481623.
114. ^ Saber, E.M.; Heydari, G. (May 2012). "Flow patterns and deposition fraction of particles in the range of 0.1–10 μm at trachea and the first third generations under different breathing conditions". Computers in Biology and Medicine. 42 (5): 631–38. doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2012.03.002. PMID 22445097.
115. ^ Raaschou-Nielsen, O.; Andersen, Z. J.; Hvidberg, M.; Jensen, S. S.; Ketzel, M.; Sorensen, M.; Tjonneland, A. (2011). "Lung cancer incidence and long-term exposure to air pollution from traffic. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]". Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (6): 860–65. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002353. PMC3114823. PMID 21227886. S2CID 1323189.
116. ^ Raaschou-Nielsen, O.; Andersen, Z. J.; Hvidberg, M.; Jensen, S. S.; Ketzel, M.; Sorensen, M.; Tjonneland, A. (2011). "Air pollution from traffic and cancer incidence: a Danish cohort study". Environmental Health. 10: 67. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-10-67. PMC3157417. PMID 21771295. S2CID 376897.
117. ^ Yacong Bo (2021). "Reduced Ambient PM2.5 Was Associated with a Decreased Risk of Chronic Kidney Disease: A Longitudinal Cohort Study". Environmental Science & Technology. 55 (10): 6876–6883. Bibcode:2021EnST...55.6876B. doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c00552. PMID 33904723. S2CID 233408693.
118. ^ Committee on Environmental Health (2004). "Ambient Air Pollution: Health Hazards to Children". Pediatrics. 114 (6): 1699–707. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2166. PMID 15574638.
119. ^ "Polluted Cities: The Air Children Breathe" (PDF). World Health Organization.
120. ^ Pieters, N; Koppen, G; Van Poppel, M; De Prins, S; Cox, B; Dons, E; Nelen, V; Int Panis, L; Plusquin, M; Schoeters, G; Nawrot, TS (March 2015). "Blood Pressure and Same-Day Exposure to Air Pollution at School: Associations with Nano-Sized to Coarse PM in Children". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (7): 737–42. doi:10.1289/ehp.1408121. PMC4492263. PMID 25756964.
121. ^ AFP (30 October 2018). "Air pollution kills 600,000 children: WHO". The News International. Retrieved 30 October 2018.
122. ^ Perera Frederica P.; Tang Deliang; Wang Shuang; Vishnevetsky Julia; Zhang Bingzhi; Diaz Diurka; Camann David; Rauh Virginia (1 June 2012). "Prenatal Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Exposure and Child Behavior at Age 6–7 Years". Environmental Health Perspectives. 120 (6): 921–926. doi:10.1289/ehp.1104315. PMC3385432. PMID 22440811.
123. ^ Perera, Frederica P.; Chang, Hsin-wen; Tang, Deliang; Roen, Emily L.; Herbstman, Julie; Margolis, Amy; Huang, Tzu-Jung; Miller, Rachel L.; Wang, Shuang; Rauh, Virginia (5 November 2014). "Early-Life Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and ADHD Behavior Problems". PLOS ONE. 9 (11): e111670. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k1670P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111670. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC4221082. PMID 25372862.
124. ^ Becerra Tracy Ann; Wilhelm Michelle; Olsen Jørn; Cockburn Myles; Ritz Beate (1 March 2013). "Ambient Air Pollution and Autism in Los Angeles County, California". Environmental Health Perspectives. 121 (3): 380–386. doi:10.1289/ehp.1205827. PMC3621187. PMID 23249813.
125. ^ Perera, Frederica; Herbstman, Julie (1 April 2011). "Prenatal environmental exposures, epigenetics, and disease". Reproductive Toxicology. Prenatal Programming and Toxicity II (PPTOX II): Role of Environmental Stressors in the Developmental Origins of Disease. 31 (3): 363–373. doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2010.12.055. ISSN 0890-6238. PMC3171169. PMID 21256208.
126. ^ Fleischer, Nancy L.; Merialdi, Mario; van Donkelaar, Aaron; Vadillo-Ortega, Felipe; Martin, Randall V.; Betran, Ana Pilar; Souza, João Paulo (1 April 2014). "Outdoor air pollution, preterm birth, and low birth weight: analysis of the world health organization global survey on maternal and perinatal health". Environmental Health Perspectives. 122 (4): 425–30. doi:10.1289/ehp.1306837. ISSN 1552-9924. PMC3984219. PMID 24508912. S2CID 3947454.
127. ^ ^{a b c} Malley, Christopher S.; Kuylenstierna, Johan C. I.; Vallack, Harry W.; Henze, Daven K.; Blencowe, Hannah; Ashmore, Mike R. (1 April 2017). "Preterm birth associated with maternal fine particulate matter exposure: A global, regional and national assessment" (PDF). Environment International. 101: 173–82. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2017.01.023. ISSN 1873-6750. PMID 28196630.
128. ^ Wang, X.; Ding, H.; Ryan, L.; Xu, X. (1 May 1997). "Association between air pollution and low birth weight: a community-based study". Environmental Health Perspectives. 105 (5): 514–20. doi:10.1289/ehp.97105514. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC1469882. PMID 9222137. S2CID 2707126.
129. ^ Brauer, Michael; Lencar, Cornel; Tamburic, Lillian; Koehoorn, Mieke; Demers, Paul; Karr, Catherine (1 May 2008). "A Cohort Study of Traffic-Related Air Pollution Impacts on Birth Outcomes". Environmental Health Perspectives. 116 (5): 680–6. doi:10.1289/ehp.10952. PMC2367679. PMID 18470315. S2CID 7721551.
130. ^ Qian, Di (29 June 2017). "Air Pollution and Mortality in the Medicare Population". New England Journal of Medicine. 376 (26): 2513–2522. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1702747. PMC5766848. PMID 28657878. S2CID 12038778.
131. ^ "2005 BC Lung Association report on the valuation of health impacts from air quality in the Lower Fraser Valley airshed" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
132. ^ Woodyatt, Amy (3 June 2020). "Scientists say they have found the cleanest air on Earth". CNN . Retrieved 3 June 2020.
133. ^ Bos, I; De Boever, P; Int Panis, L; Meeusen, R (2014). "Physical Activity, Air Pollution and the Brain". Sports Medicine. 44 (11): 1505–18. doi:10.1007/s40279-014-0222-6. PMID 25119155. S2CID 207493297.
134. ^ Air pollution linked to much greater risk of dementia The Guardian
135. ^ Julvez, Jordi; López-Vicente, Mónica; Warembourg, Charline; Maitre, Lea; Philippat, Claire; Gützkow, Kristine B.; Guxens, Monica; Evandt, Jorunn; Andrusaityte, Sandra; Burgaleta, Miguel; Casas, Maribel; Chatzi, Leda; de Castro, Montserrat; Donaire-González, David; Gražulevičienė, Regina; Hernandez-Ferrer, Carles; Heude, Barbara; Mceachan, Rosie; Mon-Williams, Mark; Nieuwenhuijsen, Mark; Robinson, Oliver; Sakhi, Amrit K.; Sebastian-Galles, Nuria; Slama, Remy; Sunyer, Jordi; Tamayo-Uria, Ibon; Thomsen, Cathrine; Urquiza, Jose; Vafeiadi, Marina; Wright, John; Basagaña, Xavier; Vrijheid, Martine (1 September 2021). "Early life multiple exposures and child cognitive function: A multi-centric birth cohort study in six European countries". Environmental Pollution. 284: 117404. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117404. ISSN 0269-7491.
136. ^ ^{a b} Costa, Lucio G.; Cole, Toby B.; Dao, Khoi; Chang, Yu-Chi; Coburn, Jacki; Garrick, Jacqueline M. (June 2020). "Effects of air pollution on the nervous system and its possible role in neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 210: 107523. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107523. ISSN 1879-016X.
137. ^ Volk, Heather E.; Perera, Frederica; Braun, Joseph M.; Kingsley, Samantha L.; Gray, Kimberly; Buckley, Jessie; Clougherty, Jane E.; Croen, Lisa A.; Eskenazi, Brenda; Herting, Megan; Just, Allan C.; Kloog, Itai; Margolis, Amy; McClure, Leslie A.; Miller, Rachel; Levine, Sarah; Wright, Rosalind (1 May 2021). "Prenatal air pollution exposure and neurodevelopment: A review and blueprint for a harmonized approach within ECHO". Environmental Research. 196: 110320. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110320. ISSN 0013-9351.
138. ^ Shang, Li; Yang, Liren; Yang, Wenfang; Huang, Liyan; Qi, Cuifang; Yang, Zixuan; Fu, Zhuxuan; Chung, Mei Chun (1 July 2020). "Effects of prenatal exposure to NO2 on children's neurodevelopment: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 27 (20): 24786–24798. doi:10.1007/s11356-020-08832-y. ISSN 1614-7499.
139. ^ Allen, Joshua L.; Liu, Xiufang; Pelkowski, Sean; Palmer, Brian; Conrad, Katherine; Oberdörster, Günter; Weston, Douglas; Mayer-Pröschel, Margot; Cory-Slechta, Deborah A. (5 June 2014). "Early Postnatal Exposure to Ultrafine Particulate Matter Air Pollution: Persistent Ventriculomegaly, Neurochemical Disruption, and Glial Activation Preferentially in Male Mice". Environmental Health Perspectives. 122 (9): 939–945. doi:10.1289/ehp.1307984. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC4154219. PMID 24901756. S2CID 6090961.
140. ^ McEnaney, Michael (7 June 2014). "Air pollution link discovered to autism, schizophrenia risks". Retrieved 8 June 2014.
141. ^ "New Evidence Links Air Pollution to Autism, Schizophrenia". University of Rochester Medical Center. 6 June 2014. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
142. ^ "New Study Demonstrates Indoor Building Environment Has Significant, Positive Impact on Cognitive Function". The New York Times. 26 October 2015.
143. ^ Allen, Joseph G.; MacNaughton, Piers; Satish, Usha; Santanam, Suresh; Vallarino, Jose; Spengler, John D. (2015). "Associations of Cognitive Function Scores with Carbon Dioxide, Ventilation, and Volatile Organic Compound Exposures in Office Workers: A Controlled Exposure Study of Green and Conventional Office Environments". Environmental Health Perspectives. 124 (6): 805–12. doi:10.1289/ehp.1510037. PMC4892924. PMID 26502459. S2CID 12756582.
144. ^ Cedeño Laurent, Jose Guillermo; MacNaughton, Piers; Jones, Emily; Young, Anna S; Bliss, Maya; Flanigan, Skye; Vallarino, Jose; Chen, Ling Jyh; Cao, Xiaodong; Allen, Joseph G (1 September 2021). "Associations between acute exposures to PM2.5 and carbon dioxide indoors and cognitive function in office workers: a multicountry longitudinal prospective observational study". Environmental Research Letters. 16 (9): 094047. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac1bd8. ISSN 1748-9326.
145. ^ India air pollution 'cutting crop yields by almost half' The Guardian, 3 November 2014
146. ^ Environment, U. N. (11 October 2018). "Air pollution linked to "huge" reduction in intelligence". UN Environment . Retrieved 1 July 2019.
147. ^ "Pollution on other planets could help us find aliens, Nasa says". The Independent. 12 February 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
148. ^ "Can Alien Smog Lead Us to Extraterrestrial Civilizations?". Wired . Retrieved 6 March 2021.
149. ^ Kopparapu, Ravi; Arney, Giada; Haqq-Misra, Jacob; Lustig-Yaeger, Jacob; Villanueva, Geronimo (22 February 2021). "Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution as a Signature of Extraterrestrial Technology". The Astrophysical Journal. 908 (2): 164. arXiv:2102.05027. Bibcode:2021ApJ...908..164K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abd7f7. ISSN 1538-4357. S2CID 231855390. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
150. ^ Simi Chakrabarti. "20th anniversary of world's worst industrial disaster". Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
151. ^ Bell, Michelle L.; Michelle L. Bell; Devra L. Davis; Tony Fletcher (January 2004). "A Retrospective Assessment of Mortality from the London Smog Episode of 1952: The Role of Influenza and Pollution". Environ Health Perspect. 112 (1): 6–8. doi:10.1289/ehp.6539. PMC1241789. PMID 14698923. S2CID 13045119.
152. ^ Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M, et al. (November 1994). "The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979" (PDF). Science. 266 (5188): 1202–08. Bibcode:1994Sci...266.1202M. doi:10.1126/science.7973702. PMID 7973702. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2006.
153. ^ Davis, Devra (2002). When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle Against Pollution . Basic Books. ISBN978-0-465-01521-4.
154. ^ ^{a b} Jacobson, Mark Z.; et al. (2015). "100% clean and renewable wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy road maps for the 50 United States". Energy and Environmental Science. 8 (7): 2093–2117. doi:10.1039/C5EE01283J.
155. ^ Palmer, Jason (12 November 2011). "'Smog-Eating' Material Breaking into the Big Time". BBC News.
156. ^ "Nanotechnology to gobble up pollution". BBC News. 15 May 2014. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
157. ^ Burns J, Boogaard H, Polus S, Pfadenhauer LM, Rohwer AC, van-Erp AM, Turley R, Rehfeuss E (20 May 2019). "Interventions to Reduce Ambient Particulate Matter Air Pollution and Their Effect on Health". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 5 (5): CD010919. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010919.pub2. PMC6526394. PMID 31106396. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
158. ^ Landrigan, Philip J. (1 January 2017). "Air pollution and health". The Lancet Public Health. 2 (1): e4–e5. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(16)30023-8. ISSN 2468-2667. PMID 29249479.
159. ^ Lyons, T. J.; Kenworthy, J. R.; Newman, P. W. G. (1 January 1990). "Urban structure and air pollution". Atmospheric Environment. Part B. Urban Atmosphere. 24 (1): 43–48. Bibcode:1990AtmEB..24...43L. doi:10.1016/0957-1272(90)90008-I. ISSN 0957-1272.
160. ^ "'False choice': is deep-sea mining required for an electric vehicle revolution?". The Guardian. 28 September 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
161. ^ "Nickel mining: the hidden environmental cost of electric cars". The Guardian. 24 August 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
162. ^ "Los Angeles Airport Pollutes City Air For Miles Downwind". Chemical and Engineering news. 30 May 2014. Retrieved 13 December 2019.
163. ^ "NASA Confirms Biofuels Reduce Jet Emissions". Flyingmag.com . Retrieved 11 January 2018.
164. ^ "Interseasonal Heat Transfer™ – Seasonal Heat Storage – GSHC – Renewable Heat & Renewable Cooling from ThermalBanks – Efficient Renewable Energy – Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems". Icax.co.uk . Retrieved 11 January 2018.
165. ^ "Road Rubber". Sciencenetlinks.com Science Updates – Science NetLinks . Retrieved 11 January 2018.
166. ^ Simeonova, Emilia (March 2018). "Congestion Pricing, Air Pollution and Children's Health". National Bureau of Environmental Research. doi:10.3386/w24410.
167. ^ "Subway air pollution damages passenger health". Chemistryworld.com . Retrieved 11 January 2018.
168. ^ Singla, Savina; Bansal, Divya; Misra, Archan; Raheja, Gaurav (31 August 2018). "Towards an integrated framework for air quality monitoring and exposure estimation-a review". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 190 (9): 562. doi:10.1007/s10661-018-6940-8. ISSN 1573-2959. PMID 30167891. S2CID 52135179.
169. ^ Kaivonen, Sami; Ngai, Edith C. -H. (1 February 2020). "Real-time air pollution monitoring with sensors on city bus". Digital Communications and Networks. 6 (1): 23–30. doi:10.1016/j.dcan.2019.03.003. ISSN 2352-8648. S2CID 88485659.
170. ^ Zhang R, Zhang Y, Lin H, Feng X, Fu TM, Wang Y (April 2020). "NOx Emission Reduction and Recovery during COVID-19 in East China". Atmosphere. 11 (4): 433. Bibcode:2020Atmos..11..433Z. doi:10.3390/atmos11040433. S2CID 219002558.
171. ^ "Airborne Nitrogen Dioxide Plummets Over China". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 28 February 2020. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
172. ^ "Analysis: Coronavirus temporarily reduced China's CO2 emissions by a quarter". Carbon Brief. 19 February 2020. Archived from the original on 4 March 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
173. ^ "New monitoring technologies can help cities combat air pollution". World Economic Forum . Retrieved 24 October 2021.
174. ^ Yu, Tao; Wang, Wen; Ciren, Pubu; Sun, Rui (18 October 2018). "An assessment of air-quality monitoring station locations based on satellite observations". International Journal of Remote Sensing. 39 (20): 6463–6478. Bibcode:2018IJRS...39.6463Y. doi:10.1080/01431161.2018.1460505. ISSN 0143-1161. S2CID 135457028.
175. ^ "Pollution is Personal". The Atlantic . Retrieved 20 December 2021.
176. ^ "World Air Map: Live air quality everywhere in the world". Plume Labs Air Report . Retrieved 20 December 2021.
177. ^ Air Quality Directive
178. ^ "Environment Canada – Air Quality". Ec.gc.ca. 10 September 2007. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
179. ^ "Environment Canada – AQHI categories and explanations". Ec.gc.ca. 16 April 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
180. ^ ^{a b} Europa (1996). "Summaries of EU legislation – Management and quality of ambient air". Retrieved 24 January 2015.
181. ^ European Court of Justice, CURIA (2008). "PRESS RELEASE No 58/08 Judgment of the Court of Justice in Case C-237/07" (PDF) . Retrieved 24 January 2015.
182. ^ Overview of relevant case law and critical state of air pollution protection in the EU: Winfried Huck, Jennifer Maaß, Saparya Sood, Tahar Benmaghnia, Alexander Schulte, Sarah Heß and Marc-Anthony Walter, The Right to Breathe Clean Air and Access to Justice - Legal State of Play in International, European and National Law (2021) in 8(22) International Institutions: Transnational Networks eJournal, available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3808572
183. ^ European Commission. "Air quality: Commission sends final warning to UK over levels of fine particle pollution". Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
184. ^ House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee (2010). "Environmental Audit Committee – Fifth Report Air Quality". Retrieved 24 January 2015.
185. ^ ^{a b} Guardian (11 March 2011). "Britain fends off threat of £300m fine over London air pollution". Guardian . Retrieved 24 January 2015.
186. ^ London Assembly Environment Committee (2009). "Every Breath You Take" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
187. ^ BBC (2010) (6 December 2010). "Threat to sue over London congestion charge scrapping". BBC News . Retrieved 24 January 2015.
188. ^ Risse-Kappen, T (1995). Bringing transnational relations back in: non-state actors, domestic structures, and international institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–34.
189. ^ ^{a b} Pattberg, P; Stripple, J. (2008). "Beyond the public and private divide: remapping transnational climate governance in the 21st century". International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. 8 (4): 367–388. doi:10.1007/s10784-008-9085-3. S2CID 62890754.
190. ^ Roman, M (2010). "Governing from the middle: the C40 Cities Leadership Group". Corporate Governance. 10 (1): 73–84. doi:10.1108/14720701011021120.
191. ^ "Air pollution hot spot". Retrieved 24 April 2014.
192. ^ Pettit, David (14 December 2014). "Global Toll of Air Pollution: Over 3 Million Deaths Each Year". Switchboard NRDC. Archived from the original on 8 May 2014.
193. ^ Watch air pollution flow across the planet in real time Science Magazine News, 28 November 2016.
194. ^ ^{a b} Drury, Richard; Belliveau, Michael; Kuhn, J Scott; Shipra, Bansal (Spring 1999). "Pollution Trading and Environmental Justice: Los Angeles' Failed Experiment in Air Pollution Policy". Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum. 9 (231).
195. ^ ^{a b} Morello-Frosch, Rachel; Zuk, Miriam; Jerrett, Michael; Shamasunder, Bhavna; Kyle, Amy D. (2011). "Understanding the Cumulative Impacts of Inequalities in Environmental Health: Implications for Policy". Health Affairs. 30 (5): 879–87. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0153. PMID 21555471.
196. ^ Mohai, P; Lantz, PM; Morenoff, J; House, JS; Mero, RP (2009). "Racial and Socioeocnomic Disparities in Residential Proximity". American Journal of Public Health. 99 (3): S649–56. doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.131383. PMC2774179. PMID 19890171.
197. ^ Lerner, Steve (2010). "Sacrifice Zones: The Front Lines of Toxic Chemical Exposure in the United States". Port Arthur, Texas: Public Housing Residents Breathe Contaminated Air from Nearby Refineries and Chemical Plants. MIT Press.
198. ^ "World Bank Statistics" (PDF) . Retrieved 29 August 2010.
199. ^ Michelozzi, P.; Forastiere, F.; Fusco, D.; Perucci, C. A.; Ostro, B.; Ancona, C.; Pallotti, G. (1998). "Air Pollution and Daily Mortality in Rome, Italy". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 55 (9): 605–10. doi:10.1136/oem.55.9.605. JSTOR 27730990. PMC1757645. PMID 9861182.
200. ^ The Daily Telegraph 8 January 2014 'Air pollution killing up to 500,000 Chinese each year, admits former health minister'.
201. ^ Mariama Darame (29 November 2019). "En Afrique de l'Ouest, une pollution mortelle mais d'ampleur inconnue". Le Monde (in French).
202. ^ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1 March 2012). "ENVIRONMENTAL OUTLOOK TO 2050 - OECD" (PDF). OECD.

Further reading [edit]

• Brimblecombe, Peter. The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times (Methuen, 1987)
• Brimblecombe, Peter. "History of air pollution." in Composition, Chemistry and Climate of the Atmosphere (Van Nostrand Reinhold (1995): 1–18
• Brimblecombe, Peter; Makra, László (2005). "Selections from the history of environmental pollution, with special attention to air pollution. Part 2*: From medieval times to the 19th century". International Journal of Environment and Pollution. 23 (4): 351–67. doi:10.1504/ijep.2005.007599.
• Cherni, Judith A. Economic Growth versus the Environment: The Politics of Wealth, Health and Air Pollution (2002) online
• Corton, Christine L. London Fog: The Biography (2015)
• Currie, Donya. "WHO: Air Pollution a Continuing Health Threat in World's Cities," The Nation's Health (February 2012) 42#1 online
• Dewey, Scott Hamilton. Don't Breathe the Air: Air Pollution and US Environmental Politics, 1945–1970 (Texas A & M University Press, 2000)
• Gonzalez, George A. The politics of air pollution: Urban growth, ecological modernization, and symbolic inclusion (SUNY Press, 2012)
• Grinder, Robert Dale (1978). "From Insurgency to Efficiency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in Pittsburgh before World War I.". Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine. 61 (3): 187–202.
• Grinder, Robert Dale. "The Battle for Clean Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War America" in Martin V. Melosi, ed., Pollution & Reform in American Cities, 1870–1930 (1980), pp. 83–103.
• Mingle, Jonathan, "Our Lethal Air" [review of Gary Fuller, The Invisible Killer...; Beth Gardiner, Choked...; Tim Smedley, Clearing the Air...; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter (External Review Draft, 2018); and Chartered Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee, Letter to EPA Administrator on the EPA's Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter, 11 April 2019], The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp. 64–66, 68. "Today, 91 percent of people worldwide live in areas where air pollution levels exceed the World Health Organization's recommended limits. ... [T]here is no safe level of exposure to fine particulate matter. ... Most of these fine particles are a by-product of ... burning ... coal, gasoline, diesel, wood, trash ... These particles can get past the defenses of our upper airways to penetrate deep into our lungs and reach the alveoli ... From there, they cross into the bloodstream and spread throughout the body. They can travel through the nose, up the olfactory nerve, and lodge ... in the brain. They can form deposits on the lining of arteries, constricting blood vessels and raising the likelihood of ... strokes and heart attacks. [T]hey exacerbate respiratory illnesses like asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ... There's ... evidence linking air pollution exposure to an increased risk of Alzheimer's and other forms of dementia." (p. 64.)
• Mosley, Stephen. The chimney of the world: a history of smoke pollution in Victorian and Edwardian Manchester. Routledge, 2013.
• Schreurs, Miranda A. Environmental Politics in Japan, Germany, and the United States (Cambridge University Press, 2002) online
• Thorsheim, Peter. Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800 (2009)

External links [edit]

• Air Pollution: Everything You Need to Know Guide by the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)
• Global real-time air quality index map
• Air Quality Index (AQI) Basics
• AQI Calculator AQI to Concentration and Concentration to AQI for five pollutants
• International Conference on Urban Air Quality Archived 16 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
• UNEP Urban environmental planning
• European Commission > Environment > Air > Air Quality
• Database: outdoor air pollution in cities from the World Health Organization
• World Health Organization Fact Sheet on Air quality and health
• Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air
• The Mortality Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom, UK Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution, 2010.
• Ground Level Ozone Pollution at EPA.gov

Effects of Air Pollution on Animals Drawing

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution